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Superficiallayerofcervicalfasciathatsurmediatetendonwhichactsonthelesserhornof rounds the sternocleidomastoid and trapezius 13 the hyoid bone by means of a connective tissue muscles medicine for sore throat generic rivastigimine 3mg without prescription. A Layerthatliesbetweenthevertebralcolumnand 17 E pharyngeal constrictors as well as the 10 M medicine doctor order rivastigimine with mastercard. A:Itpullsthehyoidbacktissue investing the neurovascular bundle 19 wardandupward medications similar to xanax order rivastigimine 6mg without prescription. A Muscles 83 1 10 9 8 2 9 3 8 4 E Segment of A 11 5 19 6 16 7 14 8 18 9 11 12 11 10 17 11 A Muscles of hyoid bone B Muscles of floor of mouth 12 from above and behind 13 23 22 14 80. Muscle that occasionally (4%) crossesthepectoralismajormuscleparalleland intercostal muscles from the rib angle to the 2 proximal to the sternum. Internal portion of the internal 3 intercostalmusclesseparatedbytheintercostal 4−6costalcartilagesandrectussheath. Situated on the inner surface of the anterior thoracic wall, it radiates 6 5 Sternocostal part. Theporobliquely upward from the sternum to costal tionarisingfromthesternumandribs. Dome-shaped, muscular partition beDraws scapula forward and downward and ribs tween the thoracic and abdominal cavities. A:Stabilizessternoclavicular ing from the lumbar vertebral bodies, interjointagainsttension. Tendinousarchoverthequadratuslumexternalintercostalmusclesanteriorlybetween borum muscle between the transverse process the costal cartilages. A: Forward flexion of invests the spermatic cord and elevates the 2 trunk, lowering of thorax, elevation of pelvis. Intersectiones tenribs 7− 12, thoracolumbar fascia, iliac crest, in3 guinal ligament. They fuse with the antenerves7−12,iliohypogastric,ilio-inguinal,geni4 rior wall of therectussheath. Fibers arching from the aponeurosis 5 ofthetransversusmuscleintothepectinealligaby the aponeuroses of the flat abdominal ment. It passes from anterior superior ofthebackborderedbythelatissimusdorsi,exiliacspinetothepubictubercle. Fascia tissue fibers arching downward to the pubis at between the peritoneum and abdominal themedialattachmentoftheinguinalligament. Inner inguinal ring at the transition of the 16 tion of the lacunar ligament along the pecten transversalis fascia into the internal spermatic pubis. Walls: Inguifibers passing upward from the medial attachnal ligament, external oblique aponeurosis, inment of the inguinal ligament and forming the ternal oblique and transversus abdominis 18 medialliningofthesuperficialinguinalring. I:12thintercostalnerve,lumexternal oblique aponeurosis ascending lateral bar plexus. Itliesmedialtothesacrospinous flexion, weak adduction and medial rotation of 2 ligament. D E F ment of the primitive coccygeal musculature passing anteriorly from the sacrum to the coc19 M. A muscle with common attachment to the 4 [[Dorsal (posterior) sacrococcygeus muscle]]. A: eriorsurfaceofhumeruslateralandproximalto Lateral and medial rotation, abduction, adducgroove for radial nerve. A: Lateral rotation margin of olecranon and posterior surface of and weak adduction. A: Flexion and supination of the elbow joint, weak abduction of the shoulder joint. Synovial sheath for the tendon of the long head of the biceps in the inter21 tubercular groove.
Syndromes
It is located next to the fourth ventricle and is not restricted by the blood–brain barrier treatment 30th october purchase rivastigimine 6mg on line, which allows it to respond to chemicals in the bloodstream—namely symptoms west nile virus purchase 1.5mg rivastigimine with amex, toxins that will stimulate emesis medications images buy 6mg rivastigimine amex. There are significant connections between this area, the solitary nucleus, and the dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus nerve. These autonomic system and nuclei connections are associated with the symptoms of motion sickness. Motion sickness is the result of conflicting information from the visual and vestibular systems. If motion is perceived by the visual system without the complementary vestibular stimuli, or through vestibular stimuli without visual confirmation, the brain stimulates emesis and the associated symptoms. The area postrema, by itself, appears to be able to stimulate emesis in response to toxins in the blood, but it is also connected to the autonomic system and can trigger a similar response to motion. Though it is often described as a dangerous and deadly drug, scopolamine is used to treat motion sickness. Scopolamine is one of the substances derived from the Atropa genus along with atropine. At higher doses, those substances are thought to be poisonous and can lead to an extreme sympathetic syndrome. However, the transdermal patch regulates the release of the drug, and the concentration is kept very low so that the dangers are avoided. For those who are concerned about using “The Most Dangerous Drug,” as some websites will call it, ® antihistamines such as dimenhydrinate (Dramamine ) can be used. As discussed in this video, movies that are shot in 3-D can cause motion sickness, which elicits the autonomic symptoms of nausea and sweating. The disconnection between the perceived motion on the screen and the lack of any change in equilibrium stimulates these symptoms. Why do you think sitting close to the screen or right in the middle of the theater makes motion sickness during a 3-D movie worse? The key to understanding the autonomic system is to explore the response pathways—the output of the nervous system. The way we respond to the world around us, to manage the internal environment on the basis of the external environment, is divided between two parts of the autonomic nervous system. When the external environment does not present any immediate danger, a restful mode descends on the body, and the digestive system is more active. The sympathetic output of the nervous system originates out of the lateral horn of the thoracolumbar spinal cord. An axon from one of these central neurons projects by way of the ventral spinal nerve root and spinal nerve to a sympathetic ganglion, either in the sympathetic chain ganglia or one of the collateral locations, where it synapses on a ganglionic neuron. The axon from the ganglionic neuron—the postganglionic fiber—then projects to a target effector where it will release norepinephrine to bind to an adrenergic receptor, causing a change in the physiology of that organ in keeping with the broad, divergent sympathetic response. The sympathetic system has a specialized preganglionic connection to the adrenal medulla that causes epinephrine and norepinephrine to be released into the bloodstream rather than exciting a neuron that contacts an organ directly. This hormonal component means that the sympathetic chemical signal can spread throughout the body very quickly and affect many organ systems at once. Neurons from particular nuclei in the brain stem or from the lateral horn of the sacral spinal cord (preganglionic neurons) project to terminal (intramural) ganglia located close to or within the wall of target effectors. Signaling molecules utilized by the autonomic nervous system are released from axons and can be considered as either neurotransmitters (when they directly interact with the effector) or as hormones (when they are released into the bloodstream). The same molecule, such as norepinephrine, could be considered either a neurotransmitter or a hormone on the basis of whether it is released from a postganglionic sympathetic axon or from the adrenal gland. The synapses in the autonomic system are not always the typical type of connection first described in the neuromuscular junction.
Short Bones A short bone is one that is cube-like in shape treatment jones fracture purchase rivastigimine online now, being approximately equal in length medications guide cheap 6 mg rivastigimine otc, width symptoms lymphoma generic 3mg rivastigimine otc, and thickness. The only short bones in the human skeleton are in the carpals of the wrists and the tarsals of the ankles. Flat Bones the term fatfat bonebone is somewhat of a misnomer because, although a fat bone is typically thin, it is also often curved. Examples include the cranial (skull) bones, the scapulae (shoulder blades), the sternum (breastbone), and the ribs. Flat bones serve as points of attachment for muscles and often protect internal organs. Irregular Bones An irregular bone is one that does not have any easily characterized shape and therefore does not ft any other classifcation. These bones tend to have more complex shapes, like the vertebrae that support the spinal cord and protect it from compressive forces. Many facial bones, particularly the ones containing sinuses, are classifed as irregular bones. Sesamoid Bones A sesamoid bone is a small, round bone that, as the name suggests, is shaped like a sesame seed. These bones form in tendons (the sheaths of tissue that connect bones to muscles) where a great deal of pressure is generated in a joint. Sesamoid bones vary in number and placement from person to person but are typically found in tendons associated with the feet, hands, and knees. The patellae (singular = patella) are the only sesamoid bones found in common with every person. Table 1 reviews bone classifcations with their associated features, functions, and examples. Bone Classifications Bone classification Features Function(s) Examples Small and round; embedded in Protect tendons from Sesamoid Patellae tendons compressive forces Self-Check Questions Take the quiz below to check your understanding of Bone Classifcation: http://oea. Later discussions in this chapter will show that bone is also dynamic in that its shape adjusts to accommodate stresses. This section will examine the gross anatomy of bone frst and then move on to its histology. Gross Anatomy of Bone the structure of a long bone allows for the best visualization of all of the parts of a bone (Figure 1). The diaphysis is the tubular shaft that runs between the proximal and distal ends of the bone. The hollow region in the diaphysis is called the medullary cavity, which is flled with yellow marrow. The wider section at each end of the bone is called the epiphysis (plural = epiphyses), which is flled with spongy bone. Each epiphysis meets the diaphysis at the metaphysis, the narrow area that contains the epiphyseal plate (growth plate), a layer of hyaline (transparent) cartilage in a growing bone. When the bone stops growing in early adulthood (approximately 18–21 years), the cartilage is replaced by osseous tissue and the epiphyseal plate becomes an epiphyseal line. A the endosteum (end– = “inside”; oste– = “bone”), where bone growth, typical long bone shows the gross repair, and remodeling occur. The periosteum contains blood vessels, nerves, and lymphatic vessels that nourish compact bone. The periosteum covers the entire outer surface except where the epiphyses meet other bones to form joints (Figure 2). In this region, the epiphyses are covered with articular cartilage, a thin layer of cartilage that reduces friction and acts as a shock absorber.
Whereas other synapses result in graded potentials that must reach a threshold in the postsynaptic target medications 73 buy cheap rivastigimine 6 mg, activity at the neuromuscular junction reliably leads to muscle fber contraction with every nerve impulse received from a motor neuron 1950s medications cheap rivastigimine online master card. However symptoms 8 dpo bfp purchase genuine rivastigimine on line, the strength of contraction and the number of fbers that contract can be afected by the frequency of the motor neuron impulses. Reflexes This chapter began by introducing refexes as an example of the basic elements of the somatic nervous system. Simple somatic refexes do not include the higher centers discussed for conscious or voluntary aspects of movement. Refexes can be spinal or cranial, depending on the nerves and central components that are involved. The Withdrawal Reflex At the beginning of this chapter, we discussed the heat and pain sensations from a hot stove causing withdrawal of the arm through a connection in the spinal cord that leads to contraction of the biceps brachii. The description of this withdrawal refex was simplifed, for the sake of the introduction, to emphasize the parts of the somatic nervous system. In order to consider refexes fully, let’s revisit this example with more attention to the details. As you withdraw your hand from the stove, you do not want to slow that refex down. Because the neuromuscular junction is strictly excitatory, the biceps will contract when the motor nerve is active. In the hot-stove withdrawal refex, this occurs through an interneuron in the spinal cord. The interneuron receives a synapse from the axon of the sensory neuron that detects that the hand is being burned. In response to this stimulation from the sensory neuron, the interneuron then inhibits the motor neuron that controls the triceps brachii. This is done by releasing a neurotransmitter or other signal that hyperpolarizes the motor neuron connected to the triceps brachii, making it less likely to initiate an action potential. Without the antagonistic contraction, withdrawal from the hot stove is faster and keeps further tissue damage from occurring. Another example of a withdrawal refex occurs when you step on a painful stimulus, like a tack or a sharp rock. The nociceptors that are activated by the painful stimulus activate the motor neurons responsible for contraction of the tibialis anterior muscle. An inhibitory interneuron, activated by a collateral branch of the nociceptor fber, will inhibit the motor neurons of the gastrocnemius and soleus muscles to cancel plantar fexion. An important diference in this refex is that plantar fexion is most likely in progress as the foot is pressing down onto the tack. In this refex, when a skeletal muscle is stretched, a muscle spindle receptor is activated. The axon from this receptor structure will cause direct contraction of the muscle. A collateral of the muscle spindle fber will also inhibit the motor neuron of the antagonist muscles. A common example of this refex is the knee jerk that is elicited by a rubber hammer struck against the patellar ligament in a physical exam. The Corneal Reflex A specialized refex to protect the surface of the eye is the corneal reflex, or the eye blink refex. When the cornea is stimulated by a tactile stimulus, or even by bright light in a related refex, blinking is initiated. The sensory component travels through the trigeminal nerve, which carries somatosensory information from the face, or through the optic nerve, if the stimulus is bright light.
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